Geographic(al) Information System, GIScience, Geomatics, Geoinformatics, Geoinformation Technology and Geospatial Technology

 [Excerpted from my book Remote Sensing and GIS]

Common people, often, get confused with the terms Geographic(al) Information System, GIScience, Geomatics, Geoinformatics, Geoinformation Technology and Geospatial Technology. To understand the differences or similarities among them we need to fine-tune our understanding about these frequently used and interchangeable terms.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based information system used to digitally represent and analyze the geospatial data or geographic data. The GIS has been called an 'enabling technology', because it offers interrelation with the wide variety of disciplines which must deal with geospatial data. Each related field provides some of the techniques which make up a GIS. Many of these related fields emphasize data collection; GIS brings them together by emphasizing integration, modelling, and analysis. GIS has many alternative names used over the years with respect to the range of applications and emphasis; e.g., land information system, AM/FM--automated mapping and facilities management, environmental information system, resources information system, planning information system, spatial data-handling system, soil information system, and so on.

However, GIS may be considered as a type of software in a computer system that allows us to handle information about the location of features or phenomena on the earth’s surface, which has all the functionalities of a conventional DBMS plus much of the functionality of a computer mapping system. But software or an information system cannot be used in a vacuum. We need proper knowledge to develop it, to use it, and to make decisions from it. From this point of view, GIS is not just an advanced type of information systems, but a combination of science and technology, which has several interrelated distinct disciplines. Some of the interrelated important disciplines are geography, cartography, remote sensing, photogrammetry, surveying, geodesy, global navigation satellite system (GNSS), statistics, operations research, computer science, mathematics, and civil engineering.

As the integrating field, GIS often claims to be a science--Geospatial Information Science or Geographic Information Science. In the strictest sense, GIS is a computer system capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a tool that allows users to create interactive queries (user defined searches), analyze the geospatial information, and edit geospatial data. Geographical Information Science (often written as GIScience) is the science underlying the applications and systems. It is closely related to GIS but is not application-specific like GIS. For instance, analysis techniques, visualisation techniques, and algorithms/scientific logics for geographical data analysis are all part of GIScience.

GIScience is very much related with the term Geoinformatics that is a shorter name for Geographic Information Technology. Geographic information (also called geoinformation) is created by manipulating geographic (or geospatial) data in a computer system. Geoinformatics is a science and technology, which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of Geosciences (another name for Earth sciences) and related branches of engineering. Prakash (2006) defined Geoinformatics as "the collection, integration, management, analysis, and presentation of geospatial data, models and knowledge that support disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research and education". The four main tasks of Geoinformatics are: (1) collection and processing of geodata (geodata is the contraction of geographic data), (2) development and management of databases of geodata, (3) analysis and modelling of geodata, and (4) development and integration of logic and computer tools and software for the first three tasks. Geoinformatics uses GeoComputation (see note below) and it is the development and use of remote sensing, GIS, and GNSS.

According to Virrantaus and Haggrén (2000) geoinformatics is a combination of remote sensing and GIS (they used the term Geoinformation Technique (GIT) instead of GIS technology). For example spatial analysis is a field in which image processing and GIS software tools are mixed and used together. It is very good experience to realize how same functionality can be achieved by using either image processing software tool or traditional GIS analysis tool within the embrace of Geoinformatics.

Geoinformatics is not only for the people from surveying or geography but recently more and more people from other disciplines like Computer Science, Civil Engineering, Architecture, Geology etc. want to study Geoinformatics as their minor or even as their major subject (Virrantaus and Haggrén 2000). For that reason it has been most important to develop the contents of Geoinformatics curriculum towards more scientific subject and less being related with traditional surveying and mapping. People who wish to apply RS and GIS in their own problems among landscape design, geology or software development do not want to get profound knowledge on field measurements or printing technology. Geoinformatics as a mathematically and computationally oriented subject concentrates on data modeling and management, analysis and visualization processes and algorithms, GeoComputation, spatial statistics and operations research applications, development of GIS, image interpretation and satellite mapping technology (Virrantaus and Haggrén 2000).

Geoinformatics is a subset of Geomatics (also called Geomatics Engineering). In addition to topics within the confines of Geoinformatics, Geomatics emphasizes traditional surveying and mapping. The term 'Geomatics' relates both to science and technology, and integrates the following more specific disciplines and technologies: geodesy, traditional surveying, GNSS and their augmentations, cartography, remote sensing, photogrammetry, and GIS. An alternative view is that geomatics is the measurement and survey component of the broader field of GISscience. Geomatics is the discipline of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering of geoinformation or spatially referenced information.

The term Geomatics is fairly young, apparently being coined by B. Dubuisson in 1969. Originally used in Canada, because it is similar in French and English, the term geomatics has been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, and many other international authorities, although some (especially in the United States) have shown a preference for the term 'Geospatial Technology'.

Geomatics (or Geospatial Technology) is all about geospatial data. Although, precise definition of geomatics is still in flux; a good definition can be given from the University of Calgary's web page: "Geomatics Engineering is a modern discipline, which integrates acquisition, modelling, analysis, and management of spatially referenced data, i.e. data identified according to their locations. Based on the scientific framework of geodesy, it uses terrestrial, marine, airborne, and satellite-based sensors to acquire spatial and other data. It includes the process of transforming spatially referenced data from different sources into common information systems with well-defined accuracy characteristics". Konecny (2002) said "Geomatics, composed of the disciplines of geopositioning, mapping and the management of spatially oriented data by means of computers, has recently evolved as a new discipline from the integration of surveys and mapping (geodetic engineering) curricula, merged with the subjects of remote sensing and GIS". Geopositioning refers to identifying the real-world geographic position by means of GNSS or any other surveying technique.

A number of University Departments which were once titled Surveying, Survey Engineering or Topographic Science, have re-titled themselves as Geomatics or Geomatics Engineering. According to Konecny (2002), geomatics has originated from surveying, mapping, and geodesy. Earlier, in higher education, the specialization was possible in one field such as geodesy or photogrammetry, but a comprehensive orientation toward surveying and mapping was lacking. Since about 1960 a technological revolution has taken place in surveying and mapping technology: angular surveys have been augmented by electronic distance measurement, and more recently by GNSS. Digital computers were able to statistically analyze huge measurement sets. Photogrammetry has become an analytical discipline, competing in accuracy with ground surveys. Earth observation by satellites has made remote sensing an indispensable tool. Cartography relying on tedious graphic work has made way to computer graphics. GIS has permitted to organize spatially oriented data in databases for the management of global, regional and local problems. The need for sustainable development has recently made obvious, that spatially referenced data constitute a needed infrastructure (spatial data infrastructure), to which all governments subscribe. Surveying and mapping curricula have traditionally provided the vision for the provision, updating, management and dissemination of spatially referenced data. However, there was a need to upgrade the curriculum orientation to modern tools and to society's requirements. This is the reason why many programs have changed their name to 'Geomatics'.

NOTE
GeoComputation is an emergent paradigm (class of elements with similarities) for multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary research that enables the exploration of previously insolvable, extraordinarily intricate problems in geographic context. Some people see GeoComputation as an incremental development rather than something entirely new. Several doubt that GeoComputation will make any real contribution to the sciences. Others view GeoComputation as a follow-on revolution to GIS. Openshaw (2000) argues GeoComputation is not just using computational techniques to solve spatial problems, but rather a completely new way of doing science in a geographical context.


References
Konecny, G. (2002). Recent global changes in geomatics education. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXIV, Part 6, pp. 9-14.
Openshaw, S. (2000). GeoComputation. In: S. Openshaw and R.J. Abrahart (eds.), GeoComputation, Taylor & Francis, New York, pp. 1-31.
Prakash, A. (2006). Introducing Geoinformatics for Earth System Science Education. Journal of Geoscience Education. URL: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_q ... _n17190422
University of Calgary's web page: http://www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/about/whatis
Virrantaus, K. and Haggrén, H. (2000). Curriculum of Geoinformatics -- Integration of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Technology. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vol. XXXIII, Part B6, pp. 288-294.

Spatial and Geospatial

Often my students ask about the difference(s) between spatial and geospatial. These two words appear very frequently in remote sensing and GIS literature.

The word spatial originated from Latin 'spatium', which means space. Spatial means 'pertaining to space' or 'having to do with space, relating to space and the position, size, shape, etc.' (Oxford Dictionary), which refers to features or phenomena distributed in three-dimensional space (any space, not only the Earth's surface) and, thus, having physical, measurable dimensions. In GIS, 'spatial' is also referred to as 'based on location on map'.

Geographic(al) means 'pertaining to geography (the study of the surface of the earth)' and 'referring to or characteristic of a certain locality, especially in reference to its location in relation to other places' (Macquarie Dictionary). Spatial has broader meaning, encompassing the term geographic. Geographic data can be defined as a class of spatial data in which the frame is the surface and/or near-surface of the Earth. 'Geographic' is the right word for graphic presentation (e.g., maps) of features and phenomena on or near the Earth's surface. Geographic data uses different feature types (raster, points, lines, or polygons) to uniquely identify the location and/or the geographical boundaries of spatial (location based) entities that exist on the earth surface. Geographic data are a significant subset of spatial data, although the terms geographic, spatial, and geospatial are often used interchangeably.

Geospatial is another word, and might have originated in the industry to make the things differentiate from geography. Though this word is becoming popular, it has not been defined in any of the standard dictionary yet. Since 'geo' is from Greek 'gaya' meaning Earth, geospatial thus means earth-space. NASA says 'geospatial means the distribution of something in a geographic sense; it refers to entities that can be located by some co-ordinate system'. Geospatial data is to develop information about features, objects, and classes on Earth's surface and/or near Earth's surface. Geospatial is that type of spatial data which is related to the Earth, but the terms spatial and geospatial are often used interchangeably. United States Geological Survey (USGS) says "the terms spatial and geospatial are equivalent".

Excerpted from my book Remote Sensing and GIS

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

We normally observe the earth from a more or less horizontal viewpoint while living on its surface. From an altitude or from a vertical perspective, our impression of the surface below is notably different. Remote sensing enables us to view the spectral and spatial relations of observable objects and materials at a distance, typically from above, using instruments or sensors. Remote sensing is most often practised from platforms such as airplanes and spacecrafts with onboard sensors that survey and analyse surface features over extended areas unencumbered by the immediate proximity of the neighbourhood. It is a practical, orderly, and cost-effective way of maintaining and updating information about the world around us.

The advancements in computer-based image processing have made robotic and manned platform observations accessible to universities, resource-responsible agencies, environmental companies, and even individuals in their personal computers. Initially, remote sensing was controlled and sponsored by the governments of various countries but recently, commercial vendors have also involved themselves in this emerging field.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer-assisted information management system of geographically referenced data. A GIS differs from conventional computer-assisted mapping and attribute data analysis systems. Although computer-assisted cartographic systems emphasize map production and presentation of spatial data, they cannot analyse spatially defined attribute data. Attribute data analysis systems, on the other hand, analyse aspatial data. A GIS blends these into a more powerful analytical tool. Its proponents highlight its capacity to produce a comprehensive and timely analysis of complex database and its potential to improve data collection, analysis, and presentation process. Today, it is possible to make conventional GIS over the Internet, sharing various data for the use of the whole world. From the perspective of information science, the growing interest in GIS is fascinating.

GIS provides an exceptional means for integrating timely remote sensing data with other spatial and thematic data types. It is a concept that originated in Canada four decades ago, is now being applied by several application sectors as the demand increases for information and analysis on the relationship between people and their environment. Now that many commercially available GIS software packages are becoming increasingly user friendly, and can be run on personal computers, this important tool is being actively explored all over the world for various applications.

Remote sensing and GIS were initially recognized as supporting tools for planning, monitoring, and managing the appropriate utilization of earth resources. However, due to their multidisciplinary applications and integration with numerous other scientific and technological fields, in the recent years they have become a distinct field of study.

The rapid progress, and increased visibility, of remote sensing and GIS since the 1990s has been made possible by a paradigm shift in computer technology, computer science, and software engineering, as well as airborne and space observation technologies. As a result a new field of study named geomatics engineering or geospatial technology or geoinformatic technology is now in its maturity. The term 'geomatics' is fairly young and is commonly used to define the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, GIS, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), and related forms of earth mapping.

Beginners in this emerging field may refer my book Remote Sensing and GIS

Global Navigation Satellite Systems

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geospatial positioning information with global coverage. A GNSS allows small electronic receivers to determine their locations (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and precise time information using radio signals transmitted from navigation satellites along a line of sight. The need to determine precise locations for use in a variety of innovative and emerging applications such as surveying, navigation, tracking, mapping, earth observation, mobile-phone technology, and rescue applications is inevitable. Satellite navigation and positioning systems are robust and evolving technology that uses a global network of navigation satellites to achieve this in a variety of ways perhaps as many ways of its applications. GNSS technology is accurate enough to pinpoint locations anywhere in the world, in any weather condition, and at any time of the day.

There are currently several layers of satellite navigation systems. The United States’ GPS is a fully operational GNSS, and Russian GLONASS is partial operational of that kind. Two other such systems are also being developed—European Union’s Galileo and Chinese Compass. All of these four are for or intended towards global coverage. Several regional systems are also available or initiated for regional coverage by several countries. In addition, augmentation systems on these core systems are also offered by several government and private agencies.

The benefits of Satellite Navigation are enormous. For example, the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization have accepted GNSS as essential in their navigation. GNSS is revolutionizing and revitalizing the way nations operate in space, from guidance systems for the International Space Station’s return vehicle, to the management of tracking and control for satellite constellations. Military applications of GNSS are extremely widespread from mobilizing troop to supply of arms and amenities, aid in rescue operations to missile guidance.

Vehicle manufacturers now provide navigation units that combine vehicle location and road data to avoid traffic jams, and reduce travel time, fuel consumption, and therefore pollution. Road and rail transport operators are now capable to monitor the goods’ movements more efficiently, and combat theft and fraud more effectively by means of GNSS. Taxi companies now use these systems to offer a faster and more reliable service to customers. Delivery service providers are increasingly being dependent on GNSS.

Incorporating the GNSS signal into emergency-services applications creates a valuable tool for the emergency services (fire brigade, police, paramedics, sea and mountain rescue), allowing them to respond more rapidly to those in danger. There is also potential for the signal to be used to guide the blind; monitor Alzheimer’s sufferers with memory loss; and guide explorers, hikers, and sailing enthusiasts.

Surveying systems incorporating GNSS signals are being used as tools for many applications such as urban development. GNSS can be incorporated into geographical information systems for the efficient management of agricultural land and for aiding environmental protection; this is a critical role of paramount importance to assist developing nations in preserving natural resources and expanding their international trade. Another key application is the integration of third-generation mobile phones with Internet-linked applications. It will facilitate the interconnection of telecommunications, electronics, and banking networks & systems via the extreme precision of its atomic clocks.

The role played by the current GNSSs in our everyday lives is set to grow considerably with new demands for more accurate information along with integration into more applications. Some experts regard satellite navigation as an invention that is as significant in its own way as that of the watch: No one nowadays can ignore the time of day, and in the future, no one will be able to do without knowing their precise location.

For further details on GNSS please refer Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Insights into GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Compass, and Others